Organizational Culture And Ethical Values - 1604 Words

In every organization, there is a culture practiced in that organization. Different organizations have different cultures. A culture of an organization defines how that particular organization manages itself as well as treats its customers if it is a business. An organizational culture is basically developed within an organization and all the staffs or workers of an organization are usually conversant with the culture of the organization they work for. Ethical values are also part of organizational culture. Ethics are very crucial in an organization since they determine how individuals relate with one another within an organization. Ethical values are the ones which guide individuals in upholding good morals within an organization. The purpose of this study is to understand what an organizational culture is as well as the ethical values required in an organization. In addition, this study aims at showing how ethical values can be used in an organization in fostering good relationship s within and outside an organization. The question of research in this paper is the organizational culture and ethical values. The question is simply presented as a topic which requires some research about organizational culture and ethical values. The significance of studying this topic about organizational structure and ethical values is that we will be able to understand what organizational culture is and its importance in an organization. In addition, we will also understand the importance ofShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Culture And Organizational Culture1647 Words   |  7 PagesThe importance of culture in the organization The organization culture as a leadership concept has been identified as one of the many components that leaders can use to grow a dynamic organization. Leadership in organizations starts the culture formation process by imposing their assumptions and expectations on their followers. Once culture is established and accepted, they become a strong leadership tool to communicate the leader s beliefs and values to organizational members, and especially newRead MoreCultural Values and Personal Ethics Paper1583 Words   |  7 PagesCULTURAL VALUES AND PERSONAL ETHICS PAPER Cultural Values and Personal Ethics Paper MBA/500 Foundations of Problem-Based Learning R. Garth Ferrell April 23, 2006 University of Phoenix Cultural Values and Personal Ethics Paper Every day people make decisions that may have profound effect on their personal and/or professional lives as well as the lives of others. The decision people make have a foundation on their personal, cultural, and perhaps organizational values. When these values areRead MoreEssay on Cultural Values And Personal Ethics in Business1497 Words   |  6 Pagespersonal, cultural, and perhaps organizational values. When these values are in disagreement, an ethical dilemma occurs. This article attempts to explain how personal, cultural, and organizational values play significant parts in decision-making. In addition, the foundation of ethical dilemmas can often be traced to conflicting values. This paper will also briefly discuss how ethical dilemmas can be mitigated. A practical approach for understanding how ethical dilemmas occur, how dilemmas canRead MoreEnrons Ethical Dilemma1118 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Enrons Ethical Dilemma: Ethical and moral issues have received substantial focus in the modern society because of the recent cases in which huge corporations with big profits and earnings have faced bankruptcy. Enron is an example of corporations that have faced bankruptcy in the recent past because of the numerous problems it had with federal and state governments for manipulation of financial statements. While these problems are not only attributed to organizational issues, accounting firmsRead MoreCultural Values and Personal Ethics1000 Words   |  4 PagesPersonal Values In today’s society, we live our lives and make our future depending â€Å"on what we believe has value.† What we do with our time, our money and our lives are all directly influenced by our capacity to make clear, balanced and valued decisions. Each individual brings a set of personal values into the workplace. These values and the moral reasoning associated with them translate into behavior that are considered important aspects of ethical decision making in organizations. For exampleRead MoreEthical Ethics And Ethical Issues1180 Words   |  5 PagesEthical issues in organizations are inevitable and are always on the horizon. These ethical concerns can directly impact the overall health of an organization in both positive and negative aspects. In order to be prepared for the ethical issues that will arise and to create an organizational competitive advantage, an intentional focus and effective communication of the code of ethics must be incorporated as a part of strategic planning. Sherwin (1983) indicates the that the term ethics, â€Å"refers toRead MoreOrganizational Culture And Its Impact On Employees Performance And Innovative Work Behavior949 Words   |  4 Pagesemployees’ perception of being ethical leaders. Some conducts, which might be considered right in one organizational culture might be considered wrong in another. Normative appropriate conduct varies with societal and organizational culture (Yidong Xinxin, 2013). Perception of leaders being ethical affects employees’ performance and innovative work behavior (Yidong Xinxin, 2013). Global leaders should possess traits such as honesty, altruism, high moral values, transparency, integrity, and fairnessRead MoreEthical Values And Behaviors Of An Organization941 Words   |  4 PagesDr. M and class, How do ethical values shape behavior in organizations? According to Saleem (2014), ethical values and behaviors of an organization are made up of organizations institutionalized philosophies along with the moral ideologies of its members. In addition, the codes of ethics help to enhance the moral reasoning of employees while shaping their behaviors towards morally questioning unethical situations. Organizational leaders are encouraged to build cultures of trust with leadershipRead MoreBenefits Of Ethical Leadership : A Positive Corporate Reputation, Ethically Empowered Employees, Increased Quality, And Higher1734 Words   |  7 Pagespurpose of this paper is to discuss four benefits of ethical leadership; having a positive corporate reputation, ethically empowered employees, increased quality, and higher customer satisfaction. Ethical leadership will benefit an organization, because it creates a healthy ethical environment, and culture which produces a positive corporate reputati on. This will foster employees that; appreciate that ethics is important, recognizes and discusses ethical concerns, works to resolve ethics issues at theRead MoreCulture Shaping Leadership : The Business World987 Words   |  4 PagesCulture-Shaping Leadership The business world has expanded globally in the 21st century. With the development of the Internet, companies can expand into new markets in a fraction of the time previously necessary. With this new global frontier, organizations have found new challenges. Culture barriers present real obstacles for building cohesive organizational structure. In order to overcome this hurdle and take advantage of the cultural diversity, the leadership must find an effective model to accommodate

The Effects Of Advertising On Children s Obesity Rate

The Effect of Advertising on Children’s Obesity Rate It has come down to this, there is an obesity epidemic. It s like people can’t stop themselves from eating so much. Well, I guess eating isn t necessarily the big problem here... It s the type of food that people are consuming, fast food. America tops the list of world s most obese countries. It s just sad and something needs to be done about it. The worst part is that there are so many children being affected by obesity. According to CDC (Centers for Disease Control), approximately 17% (12.7 million) of children and adolescents aged 2-19 years had obesity. Also, in 2012 they found that more than one third of children and adolescents were overweight or obese (CDC). This is crazy! That is a lot of obese and overweight children that suffer from obesity from such a early time in their life. Who s to blame for all this obesity? We can branch off and look at various things causing obesity in children. But, it is proven that fast food marketers and advertisers play one of the bigges t roles in this obesity epidemic. Fast food marketers understand and know that advertising works, and brings them customers. They don t really care so much about people being obese, it s just business to them. Which is why something needs to be done about it all. A lot of people don t even think about fast food being that bad or harmful, but it is and people need to understand that. â€Å"The truth is, fast food doesn’t always mean that it’s badShow MoreRelatedThe Link Between Food Promotion And Eating Behavior1642 Words   |  7 Pageschildhood obesity and there is an emerging consensus that regulation of food advertising to children is both necessary and achievable. A key factor in this debate has been the publication of the Food Standards Agency s (FSA) review of research into the link between food promotion and eating behaviour in children, undertaken by Professor Gerard Hastings and colleagues at the University of Strathclyde.2 Though the findings are heavily qu alified, the authors conclude that advertising to children does haveRead MoreThe Effects Of Television On Childhood Obesity1337 Words   |  6 PagesThe Effects of Television on Childhood Obesity Essay It is evident that the rate of obesity is steadily increasing in North America and has reached an all-time high (Novonty 2015). This is due to the lack of physical activity, increased consumption level of unhealthy foods, and the prominent amount of exposure to media such as Television (TV). Although TV has not been proven to be a direct cause for obesity, it does however contribute to the development of children and adolescence obesity due toRead MoreThe Correlation Between Television Advertising And Obesity1508 Words   |  7 PagesINTRODUCTION The increased prevalence of child obesity has served as momentum for research to determine the nature, dimensions and significance of the relationship between Television advertising and obesity. This issue has raised major debates among policy makers, academicians, the public and even marketers themselves. The most commonly used measure of obesity is the Body Mass Index (BMI) and it is calculated by dividing the weight by the square of individual’s height. The Hasting’s review (2003)Read MoreChildren s Influence On Children920 Words   |  4 PagesAdvertisers have been marketing food to children on television since the first television broadcasts started. The effect of their marketing non-nutrient dense food to children has not had a positive result. The Federal Trade Commission’s report, Advertising to kids and the FCT: A regulatory retrospective that advises the present, reports that 50% of overweight kids become overweight adults. The report also states tha t 80% of obese adolescents will become overweight adults. â€Å"According to the CentersRead MoreNegative Effects Of Advertising On Children1261 Words   |  6 Pagesadvertisements. Children are especially vulnerable to the negative effects from advertising as many argue they are unable to decipher media content from an advertisement. The center for disease control reports that the obesity rates in children ranging from 2-11 has more than doubled in recent years. The majority of the research for this critique comes from the United States but can be applied to nations with similar media exposure like Canada. One predicted cause of the increase of obesity in children is dueRead MoreChildhood Obesity : The Prevalence Of Obesity1525 Words   |  7 PagesIn recent years, the world’s prevalence of obesity in children has increased alarmingly in most of the countries. It is estimated that 170 million of children under 18 years old are overweight, in the US there is a 30% preval ence of obesity, similarly 27% of children in Mexico are obese (OCDE, 2014; Gutià ©rrez et al., 2012). In some countries like East Germany, New Zealand, the Netherlands and Canada the prevalence of overweight children had risen by one percentage point each year (Wang LobesteinRead MoreCase Study 3 Mcdonalds and Obesity1069 Words   |  5 Pagesand Cig ads? Should Mac eliminate Ronald McDonald in its ads? I do not believe it is necessary to eliminate Ronald McDonald as the mascot. The comparison to Joe Camel is rather unfair. Although McDonalds uses Ronald to market its unhealthily to children, it is not the same as smoking and getting addicted to cigarettes (Adage.com, 2016). McDonalds should used Ron’s image in a different way, promoting healthy food and activity, less focus on the food even and focus on charitable work. Ronald is amongRead MoreThe Ethics Of Advertising For Children1731 Words   |  7 Pages Congratulations, it s a †¦ Consumer! The Ethics of Advertising to Children Ishaaq Beg ENG4U Ms. Lodi October 22nd 2015 Ishaaq Beg Ms. Lodi ENG4U October 22nd 2015 Advertising to Children â€Å"The consumer embryo begins to develop during the first year of existence. Children begin their consumer journey in infancy, and they certainly deserve consideration as consumers at that time† - James U. McNeal, Youth Marketer. Companies have their sights on kids for many reasons, butRead MoreFast Food Nation By Eric Schlosser1678 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Congress should ban advertising that preys upon children, it should stop subsidizing dead-end jobs, it should pass tougher food safety laws, it should protect American workers from serious harm, it should fight against dangerous concentrations of economic power (Schlosser). People must wonder how is it that a fast food company has so much customers. Advertising is the answer. The power advertisers have to be able to influence so many people s decisions and affect people’s lives especially the livesRead MoreChildhood Obesity : A Developing Problem1197 Words   |  5 PagesObesity in America is a developing pro blem, and not just in adults. Today, one in three American children and teens are either overweight or obese; almost triple the rate previously in 1963. Child obesity has expeditiously become one of the most genuine health challenges of the 21st century (â€Å"10 Surprising Facts About Childhood Obesity†). Physical inactivity, race, junk food in schools, the mass media, and the child’s parents flaws are all factors that have resulted in the prevalence of childhood

British painting in the 17-18th centuries (Áðèòàíñêàÿ æèâîïèñü 17-18 ââ.) free essay sample

1 ) Some Famous Illuminated Manuscripts. It is usual to see English picture as get downing with the Tudor period and for this are several grounds. Yet the fact remains that painting was practised in England for many hundred old ages before the first Tudors came to the throne. The development of the additive design in which English creative persons have ever excelled can be traced back to the earliest lights brightly evolved in Irish cloistered Centres and brought to Northumbria in the 7th century. Its chief characteristic is that fantastic amplification of fretted decoration derived from the forms of metal-work in the Celtic Iron Age, which is to be found in the Book of Kellsand Lindesfarne Gospel, its Northumbrian equivalent. The greatest accomplishment in Irish manuscript light, the Book of Kellsis now by and large assigned to the late eighth or early 9th century. The Book of Kellsis a manuscrept of the gospes of instead big size ( 33*24 centimeter ) written on thick glazed vellum. Its pages were originally still larger ; but a binder, a century or so ago, clipped away their borders, cutting even into borders of the lights. Otherwise the manuscript is in comparatively good status, in malice of another earlier mishap. The great Gospel, on history of its shaped shrine, was evilly stolen in the dark from the sacresty of the church and was found a few months subsequently stripped of its gold, under a turf. Finally the manuscript passed to trinity college, where it is today. No manuscript approaches the book of kells for luxuriant ornamentation. A uninterrupted concatenation of ornamentation tallies through the text. The capitals at the beginning of each paragraph two, three, cour to a page are made of brilliantly coloured entwinements of birds, serpents, destorted work forces and quadrupeds, contending or executing all kinds of acrebatic efforts. Other animate beings wander about the pages between the lines or on top of them. The 13th century had been the century of the great cathedrals, in which about all subdivisions of art had their portion. Work on these huge endeavors contunued into the 14th century and even beyond, but they were no longer the chief focal point of art. We must retrieve that the universe had changed a great trade during that peiod. In the center of the 12th century Europe was still a thinly populated continent of provincials with moasteries and baron s palaces as the chief Centres of power and acquisition. But a hundred and fifty old ages subsequently towns had grown into Centres of trade whose burgesss felt progressively independent of the poweof the Church and the fuedal Godheads. Even the Lords no longer lived a life of inexorable privacy in their bastioned manors, but moved to the metropoliss with their comfort and stylish luxury at that place to expose their wealth at the tribunals of the mighty. We can acquire a really graphic thought of what life in the 14th century was like if we remember the plants of Chaucer, with his knights and squires, mendicants and craftsmans. The love of fourteenth-century painters for graceful and delicate inside informations is seen in such celebrated illustrated manuscripts as the English Psalter known as Queen Mary s Book of psalms( about 1310 ) . One of the pages shows Christ in the temple, discoursing with the erudite Scribes. They have put him on a high chair, and he is seen explicating some point of philosophy with the characteristic gesture used by mediaeval creative persons when they wanted to pull a instructor. The Scribes raise their custodies in attitude of awe and amazement, and so do Christ s parents, who are merely coming on to the scene, looking at each other questioningly. The method of stating the narrative is still instead unreal. The creative person has obviously non yet heard of Giotto s find of the manner in which to present a scene so as to give it life. Christ is minute in comparing with the grown-ups, and there is no effort on the portion of the creative person to give us any thought of the infin ite between the fugures. Furthermore we can see that all the faces are more of less drawn harmonizing to one simple expression, with the curving superciliums, the oral cavity drawn downwards and the curly hair and face fungus. It is all the more surprising to look down the same page and to see that another scene has been added, which has nil to make with the sacred text. It is a subject from the day-to-day life of the clip, the hunting of ducks with a hawk. Much to the delectation of the adult male and adult female on horseback, and of the male child in forepart of them, the hawk has merely got clasp of a duck, while tow others are winging off. The creative person may non hold looked at existent male childs when he painted the scene above, but he had doubtless looked at existent hawks and ducks when he painted the scene below. Possibly he had excessively much fear for the scriptural narration to convey his observationn of existent life into it. He preferred to maintain the two thing s apart: the clear symbolic manner of stating a narrative with easy clear gestures and no distracting inside informations, and on the border of the page, the piece from existent life, which reminds us one time more that this is Chaucer s century. It was merely in the cours of the 14th century that the two elements of this art, the graceful narrative and the faithful observation, were bit by bit fused. Possibly this would non hold happened so shortly without the influence of Italian art. 2 ) 16th and 17th Centuries. When Henry VII abolished Papal authorization in England in 1534 and ordered the disintegration of the monasteries in 1536 he automatically brought to an terminal the tradition of spiritual art as it had been practised in the in-between ages and in cloistered Centres. The interruption was so complete that painting before and after seem wholly different thing, in capable, manner and medium. The local Centres of civilization holding vanished, the inclination of painting to be centralized in London and in the service of the tribunal was affirmed. Secular backing now insisted on portrayal, and the wont grew up of useng foreign painters an unreal replacing of the old, international interchange of creative persons and craftsmen. Yet the 16th century was the age of Humanism which had created a new involvement in the human personality. 3 ) Painting In The 16th 17th Centuries. In the 16th century Holbein came to England, conveying with him a much more extremely developed pictural tradition with a much Fuller sense of plastic alleviation. Holbein himself was a supreme maestro of additive design ; he could pull forms for embellishment and jewelry as no 1 else, but he neer wholly sacrificed the plastic feeling for signifier to that, and in his early work he modelled in full visible radiation and shadiness. Still, it was non hard for him to accommodate himself slightly to the English fancy for level additive form. Particularly in Hes royal portrayals, e.g. the portrayal of Henry VIII, we find and insisting on the inside informations of the embroidered forms of the apparels and the jewelry, which is out of cardinal with the careful modeling of custodies and face. Finally, by Elizabeth s reign about all hint of Holbein s plastic feeling was swept off and the English inherent aptitude for additive description had triumphed wholly. But the English were non left long in peace with their additive manner. Charles I, who had travelled abroad was bound to see that Rubens represented a much higher construct of art than anything England possessed, and invited him over. He was followed by Van Dyck, who came to remain. And although he excessively could non assist experiencing the influence of the prejudice of English gustatory sensation and learned to do his images more categorically cosmetic and less strongly modelled, than had been his habit, none the less, he set a new criterion of plastic design, and this was carried on by Lely. Lely was non a great creative person, but he was exhaustively imbued with the rules of three demensional plastic design. Though his portrayals lack psychological nuance, and neglect to uncover clearly the Sitter s individualism, they are steadfastly and systematically constructed. Kneller of the following coevals caried on the same tradition. What of native English endowment? The attack of the Civil war stripped off the Polish and brought out a sterner strain of character no less in the blue oppositions. In the pragmatism with which he depicted the activist Cavalier, William Dobson ( 1610-46 ) marks a breaking away from Van Dyckian elegance. Born in London, Dobson comes all of a sudden into prominence in monarchist Oxford after the Civil War had broken out. The picture of Endymion Porter, thefriend and agent of Charles I in the purchase of plants of art, is by and large accounted Dobson s chef-doeuvre. The most dramatic facet of the work is its pragmatism. Though Endymion Porter is portrayed as a sportswoman who has merely shot a hare, there is a austere expression about his characteristics which seems to convey that this is wartime. The sedateness of the times is besides reflected in the portrayal produced during the Commonwealth period and one would of course anticipate an even greater refection of elegance than that of Dobson during the Puritan laterality. Indeed a chance of lavish pragmatism is set out in Cromwell s warning to note all these ruffness, hickeies, warts and paint everything as you see in me . The corresponding painter to Dobson on the Parliamentary side, nevertheless, Robert Walker, was a much less original creative person and still closely imitated Van Dyck s graceful manner. A figure of other portrayal painters are of involvement by ground of their topics. John Greenhill ( c. 1644 76 ) is of some note as one of the first creative persons to picture English histrions in costume. John Riley ( 1646 91 ) was an creative person whose work is distinguished by a sedate reserve. In sequence to Lely he painted many high people, including Dryden, and some minor common people, as for illustration the aged maidservant Bridget Holmes. He was described by Horace Walpole as one of the best native painters who have flourished in England . 4 ) Painting In The eighteenth Century. The 18th century was the great age of British picture. It was in this period that British art attained a distinguishable national character. In the 17th century, art in Britain had been dominated mostly by the Flemish creative person, Anthony new wave Dyck. In the early 18th century, although influenced by Continental motions, peculiarly by French rococo, British art began to develop nindependently. William Hogarth, born merely before the bend of the century, was the first major aritst to reject foreign influence and set up a sort of art whose subjects and topics were exhaustively British. His penetrating, witty portraiture of the modern-day scene, his protest against societal unfairness and his onslaught on the vulgtarities of fashianable society make him one of the most original and important of British creative persons. Hogarth was followed by a row of celebrated painters: Thomas Cainsborough, with his lyrical landscapes, fancy images and portrayals ; the rational Sir Joshua Reynolds, who painted capturing society portrayals and became the first president of the Royal Academy ; and George Stubbs, who is merely now being recognized as an creative person of the greatest ocular perceptual experience and sensitiveness. There are many others, including Wright of Derby, Wilson, Lawrence, Ramsay, Raeburn, Romney, Wheatley, and the immature Turner. 5 ) Satirical Genre Painting 5.1 ) William Hogarth ( 1697 1764 ) William Hogarth was unimpeachably one of the greatest of English creative persons and a adult male of unusually single character and idea. It was his accomplishment to give a comprehensive position of societal life within the model of moralistic and dramatic narration. He produced portrayals which brought a fresh verve and truth into the wearied profession of what he called phizmongering . He observed both high life and low with a acute and critical oculus and his scope of observation was accompanied by an exceeding capacity for dramatic composing, and in picture by a proficient quality which adds beauty to images incorporating an component of sarcasm of imitation. A little compact adult male with blunt hard-bitten characteristics and watchful bluish eyes, he had all the sharp-wittedness of the born Cockney and an insular pride which led to his vigorous onslaughts on the overdone regard for fereign creative persons and the gustatory sensation of manque cognoscentes who brought over ( as he said ) boatloads of dead Jesuss, Madonnas and Holy Families by inferior custodies. Thereis no ground to say he had anything but regard for the great Italian Masterss, though he intentionally took a provocative attitude. What he objected to every bit much as anything was the absurd fear of the darkness produced by clip and varnish every bit good as the premise that English painters were needfully inferior to others. A candor of statement may possibly be related to Hes North-country heritage, for his male parent came to London from West-morland, but was in any instance the look of a democratic mentality and unswervingly honorable intelligence. The fact that he was apprenticed as a male child to a silver-plate engraver has a considerable bearing on Hogarth s development. It instilled a cosmetic sense which is neer absent from his most realistic productions. It introduced him to the universe of prints, after celebrated Masterss or by the satirical observers of an earlier twenty-four hours. It is the engraver s sense of line coupled with a respect for the value of Rococo curvature which governs his essay on aesthetics, The Analysis of Beauty. As a painter Hogarth may be assumed to hold learned the trade in Thornhill s academy , though his freshness of coloring material and feeling for the creamy substance of oil pigment suggest more familiarity than he admitted to with the technique of his Gallic coevalss. His first success as a painter was in the conversation pieces in which his set as an creative person found a logical beginning. These informal groups of household and friends surrounded by the customary necessariesof their daily life were congenial in allowing him to handle a pictureas astage. He was non the discoverer of the genre, which can be traced back to Dutch and Flemish art of the 17th century and in which he had modern-day challengers. Many were produced when he was about 30 and shortly after he made his cloak-and-dagger lucifer with Thornhill s girl in 1729, when extraefforts to derive a support became necessary. With many felicitousnesss of item and agreement they show Hogarth still in a reticent and deco rous temper. A measure nearer to the comprehensive position of life was the image of an existent phase, the scene from The Beggar s Operawith which he scored a great success about 1730, doing sveral versions of the picture. Two chances must hold been revealed to him as a consequence, the thought of building his ain pictural play consisting assorted scenes of societal life, and that of making a wider populace through the agencies of scratching. The first successful siries: The Harlot s Progress, of which merely the engraving now exist, was instantly followed by the enormous vitality and public violence of The Rake s Advancement , c. 1732 ; the chef-doeuvre of the narrative series the Marriage # 224 ; la Mode followed after an interval of 12 old ages. As a painter of societal life, Hogarth shows the benefit of the system of memory preparation which he made a self-discipine. London was his existence and he displayed his command in painting every facet of its people and architecture, from the sign of the zodiac in Arlington Street, the inside of which provided the scene for the disillusioned twosome in the 2nd scene of the Marriage # 224 ; la Mode , to the awful facet of Bedlam. Yet he was non content with one line of development merely and the work of his mature old ages takes a varied class. He could non defy the enticement to try a revalry with the history painters, though with small successs. The Biblical composings for St. Bartholomew s Hospital on which he embarked after The Rake s Advancement were non of a sort to convey his existent mastermind. He is sometimes satirical as in The March of the Guards towards Scotland , and the Oh the Roast Beef of Old England! ( Calais Gate ) , which was a merchandise of his individu al expeditionabroad with its John Bull remark on the status of France, and besides the Election series of 1755 with its profusion of comedy. In portrayal he displays a great assortment. The appeal of childhood, the ability to compose a vivid group, a delicious daintiness of coloring material appear in the Graham Children of 1742. The portrayal caputs of his retainers are perforating surveies of character. The picture of Captain Coram, the philanthropic sea captain who took a prima portion in the foundation of the Foundling Hospital, adapts the formality of the ceremonial portrayal to a democratic degree with a singularlyengaging effects. The quality of Hogarth as an creative person is seen to advantage in his studies and one study in peculiar, the celebrated Shrimp Girl rapidly executed with a limited scope of coloring material, stands entirely in his work, taking its topographic point among the chef-doeuvres of the universe in its harmonyof signifier and content, its freshnes s and verve. The mastermind of Hogarth is such that he is frequently regarded as a lone Rebel against a decaying artificiality, and yet though he had no students, he had coevalss who, while of lesser stature in one manner and another, tended in the same way. William Hogarth expressed in his art the new temper of national elation, the critical spirit of the self-assured middle class and the broad humanism of his age. He was the first native-born English painter to go a hero of the Enlightenment. One ground for his popularity was that the mastermind of the age found its highest look in humor. From Moli # 232 ; rhenium to Votaire, from Congreve through Swift and Pope to Fielding, the literature of humor was enriched on a graduated table unprecedent since antiquity. The great amusing authors of the century exposed folly, scarified pretense and lashed lip service and inhuman treatment. It was the great and unassisted accomplishment of Hogarth to set up comedy as a class in art to be rated every bit extremely as comedy in literature. Harmonizing to the hierarchy of artistic classs that was inherited from the Renaissance, istoria, the narrative description of elevated subjects, particularly from the Bible and antiquity was the highest subdivision of art measured by a graduated table which placed low-life genre at the underside. Hogarth was really sensitive to the categorical deprecation of amusing art, and with his friend Henry Fielding set about a run to raise its standing. In a figure of plants and statements Hogarth identified his cause with amusing literature. In his ego -portrait of 1745 the egg-shaped canvas remainders on the plants of Shakespeare, Milton and Swift. Because his grounds for raising literature were misunderstood, Hogarth exposed himself to the charge of being a literary creative person. The fable of the literary painter can be traced back to his ain age. Other pictures we look at, wrote Charles Lamb, his prints we read. Some of the incrimination for aesthetic deprecation must be placed on the shoulders of Hogarth himself. He seems to hold even encouraged an image which mystified his critics. He remarked of the cognoscente Because I hate them, they think I hate Titian and allow them! He outraged Horace Walpole by stating that he could paint a portrayal every bit good as Van Dyck. He compared nature with art, to the desadvantage of the latter. If his statements are examined carefully, it becomes evident that he did non assail foreign art as such, that he passionately admired the Old Masters. What mode of adult male was he who executed thse portrayals so assorted, so faithful, and so admirable? In the London National Gallery most of us have seen the best and most carefully finished series of his amusing pictures, and the portrayal of his ain honest face, of which the bright bluish eyes shine out from the canvas and give you an thought of that acute and courageous expression with which William Hogarth regarded the universe. No adult male was of all time less of a hero ; you see him before you, and can visualize what he was a gay, honest London citizen, stout and sturdy ; a hearly, plain-spoken adult male, loving his laugh, his friend, his glass, his roast-beef of Old England, and holding a proper businessperson contempt for foreign violinists, foregn vocalists, and, above all, for foreign painters, whom he held in the most amusive disdain. Hogarth s Portrayals of Captain Coram Hogarth painted his portrayal of Capitain Coram in 1740, and donated it the same twelvemonth to the Foundling Hospital. It was painted on Hogarth s ain enterprise, without holding been commissioned, and was presented to a charitable establishment in the devising, one of whose laminitis members Hogarth was, and it depicts a friend of his, the premier mover of the whole project. The really format of the image shows that Hogarth was exercising all his powers to bring forth a chef-doeuvre. It measures about 2.4 by 1.5 meters, the biggest portrayal Hogarth of all time painted. In bring forthing a work like this, of monumental proportions, where there was no buyer to sistort the creative person s purposes, Hogarth Mountain Time have had a definite purpose or purposes, and it is likely that he desired his work to show something of significance to him at this period of clip. The portrayal is conceived in the great manner, with foreground plus repoussoir, middle-ground, background, classical column and curtain. Coram is depicted sitting on a chair, which is placed on a platform with two stairss taking up to it. Hogarth makes usage of the conventional strategy, traditional in portrayals of swayers and Lords, with its column, curtain and platform as laudatory symbols to emphasize the topic s self-respect, a composing, which in the England of that clip, was normally associated with Van Dyck s much admired but antique protraits of male monarchs and Lords. Hogarth s picture, with its properties and symbols is non far removed form history picture. But the topic is a sea-captain, whose societal place did non, by the fixed conventions for this class of image, entitle him to this sort of portraiture. His comparatively modest place in society is emphasized by his simple frock, a broad-coat of fabric, by the absence of the wig obligatory for every curate of standing, and by the intimace and pragmatism with which the creative person has depicted this figure with his wide, compact organic structure, shose short, dead set legs do non make the floor. The manner of word picture refers back to, and creates in the perceiver an outlook of a slightly schematized and idealised mode of human portraiture. But by picturing Coram in an confidant and realistic manner Hogarth breaks the mold. In one and the same work he has made usage of the agencies of look of both the great and the low manner. By doing evident the low societal position of his topic, Hogarth seems besides to wish to transgress the authoritative philosophy, whose graduated table of values provided the foundation of the theories about the division of painting into distinguishable classs, where the nature of the subject determined a image s topographic point on the graduated table high to low . 5.2 ) Sir Joshua Reynolds ( 1723-1792 ) To experience to the full the contrast between Reynolds and Hodarth, there is no better manner than to look at their self-portraits. Hogarth s of 1745 in the Tate Gallery, Reynolds s of 1773 in the Royal Academy. Hogarth had a unit of ammunition face, with sensuous lips, and in his images looks you straight in face. He is accompanied by a pug-dog creaming his lip and looking really much like his maestro. The Canis familiaris sits in forepart of the painted ellipse frame in which the portrayal appears that is the Baroque fast one of a image within a image. Reynolds scorns suck fast ones. His official self-portrait shows him in an elegant airs with his baseball mitt in his manus, the organic structure suiting nicely into the baronial triangular lineation which Raphael and Titian had favoured, and behind him on the right appears a flop of Michelangelo. This portrayal is clearly every bit programmatic as Hogarth s. Reynolds s promramme is known to us in the greatest item. He gave wholly 15 discourses to the pupils of the Academy, and they were all printed. And whereas Hogarth s Analysis of Beatywas admired by few and neglected by most Reynolds s Discourses were international reading. What did Reynolds plead for? His is on the whole a con sistent theory. Study the great Masterss who have stood the trial of ages, and particularly analyze the plants to detect ; for it is by being familiar with the innovation of others that we learn to contrive . Do nt be a mere duplicator of nature , do nt divert world with the minute spruceness of your imitations, endeavour to affect them by the magnificence of [ ] thoughts . Do nt endeavor for eye-popping elegancies of brushwork either, signifier is superior to color, as thought is to decorate. The history painter is the painter of the highest order ; for a topic ought to be by and large interesting . It is his right and responsibility to divert from vulgar and rigorous historical truth . So Reynolds would non hold been tempt erectile dysfunction by the newsman s attitude to the picture of of import con-temporary events. With such positions on vulgar truth and general thoughts, the portrayal painter is ipso facto inferior to the history painter. Genre, and landscape and still life rank even lower. The pupil ought to maintain his chief attending fixed upon the higher Excellencies. If you compass them, and compass nil more, you are still foremost, category You may be really imperfect, but still you are an imperfect creative person of the highest order . This is clearly a consistent theory, and it is that of the Italian and even more of the Gallic 17th century. There is nil specifically English in it. But what is eminently English about Reynolds and his Discoursesis the contrast between what he preached and what he did. History picture and the Grand Manner, he told the stu-dents, is what they ought to take at, but he was a portrait painter most entirely, and an highly successful one. Reynold s Mrs Siddons as the Tragic Muse : the Grand Manner Taken Seriously For anyone coming to the picture with a fresh oculus the first feeling must certainly be one of self-respect and solem-nity. It is an feeling created non merely by the airs and bearing of the cardinal figure herself, and her costume, but besides by the attitude of her two shadowy attenders, by the agreement of the figures, and by the coloring material. The coloring material must look as one of the most singular characteristics of the picture. To the insouciant glimpse the image seems monochromatic. The dominant tone is a rich aureate brown, interrupted merely by the creamy countries of the face and weaponries and by the deep velvety shadows of the background. On closer scrutiny a much greater assortment in the coloring material is appar-ent, but the first feeling remains valid for the picture as a unit. The cardinal figure sits on a thronelike chair. She does non look at the witness but appearsan deep contemplation ; her look is one of melancholy contemplation. Her gestures competently reinforce the brooding air of the caput and besides contribute to the imperial quality of the whole figure. A great pendant bunch of pearls adorns the forepart of her frock. In the heavy, sweeping curtains that envelop the figure there are no frivolous elements of feminine costume to conflict with the initial consequence of grave magnificence. In the background, indistinctly seen on either side of the throne, are two attendant figures. One, with lowered caput and melancholic look, holds a bloody sticker ; the other, his characteristics contorted into an look of horror, hold on a cup. Surely these figures speak of violent events. Their presence adds a sinister feeling to a image already eavily charged with sedate qualities. At the clip the portrayal was painted, Sarah Siddons was in her late mid-twentiess, but she already.had a soli.d decennary of moving experience behind her. She was born in 1755, the girl of Roger Kemble, director of an itinerant com-pany of histrions. Most of her early acting experience was with her male parent s company touring through English provincial Centres. Her repute rose so rapidly that in 1775, when she was merely 20, she was engaged by Garrick to execute at Drury Lane. But this early London escapade proved premature ; she was unsuccessful and retired once more to the provincial circuits, moving chiefly at Bath. She threw her full energies into constructing her repertory and honing her playing technique, with the consequence that her return to London as a tragic actress in the fall of 1782, was one of the great esthesiss of theatre history. Almost nightlong she found herself the undisputed first lady of the British phase, a place she retained for 30 old ages. The prima inte llectuals and solons of the twenty-four hours were among her most ardent supporters and were in changeless attending at her public presentation. Among the clerisy who flocked to see the great actress and returned once more and once more was Sir Joshua Reynolds, the grand president of the Royal Academy. He was at the clip the most well-thought-of painter in England, and he besides enjoyed a broad repute as a theoretician on art. Reynolds moved with easiness among the great work forces of his twenty-four hours. Mrs Siddons comments in her memoirs: At his house were assembled all the good, the wise, the talented, the rank and manner of the age. The picture is in fact a brightly successful synthe-sis of images and thoughts from a broad assortment of beginnings. The basic impression of stand foring Mrs Siddons in the pretense of the Tragic Muse may good hold been suggested to Reynolds by a verse form honoring the actress and published early in 1783. The poetries themselves are non distinguished, but the rubric and the poet s initial image of Mrs Siddons enthroned as Melpomene, the Muse of calamity, may hold lodged in Reynolds s memory and given the initial way to his believing about the portrayal. It has long been recognized that in the basic organiza-tion of the image Reynolds had Michelangelo s Prophetss and sybils of the Sistine ceiling in head. Mrs Siddons s poserecalls that of Isaiah, and of the two attendant figures the 1 on the left is really closely modelled on the simi-larly located comrade of the prophesier Jeremiah. Reynolds s attitude toward this kind of borrowing from the plants of other creative persons may look a small strange to us today. He thought that great plants of art should function as a school to the pupils at the Royal Academy: He, who borrows an thought from an antediluvian, or even from a modern creative person non his modern-day, and so accommodates his ain work, that it makes a portion of it, with no seam or fall ining looking, can barely be charged with plagiarism: poets practise this sort of adoption, without modesty. But an creative person should non be content with this merely ; he should come in into a competition with his original, and enterprise to better what he is allowing to his ain work. Such imitation is a ageless exercising of the head, a continual innovation. From this point of position The Tragia Muse is a perfect illustration of Reynolds ; s advice to the pupil. If the agreement of the figures in the portrayal of Mrs Siddons suggests Michelangelo, other facets of the picture, peculiarly the coloring material, the heavy shadow effects, and the existent application of the pigment, are wholly unlike the work of Michelangelo and suggest alternatively the pictures of Rembrandt. But the astonishing thing is that the finished merchandise is in no sense a medley. The disparate elements have all been transformed through Reynolds s ain ocular imaginativeness and have emerged as a unit in which the relationship of all the parts to one another seems non merely right but inevitable. This in itself is an accomplishment commanding our esteem. In The Tragic Muse Reynolds achieved an air of magnificence and self-respect which he and his coevalss regarded as a premier aim of art and which no other portrayal of the twenty-four hours embodied so successfully. 5.3 ) George Romney ( 1734-1802 ) Romney is best known to the general populace by facile portrayals of adult females and kids and by his many surveies of Lady Hamilton, whom he delighted to portray in assorted historical functions, these are non nevertheless his best plant. His visit to Italy at a clip when New Classical motion was bet oning land made a permanent feeling on him and some of his portrayal groups, e. g. The Gower Children , 1776, are composed with classical statuary in head, peculiarly in the intervention of the curtains. He painted a figure of impressive male portraits. , and some stylish groups of great elegance, e. g. Sir Cristopher and Lady Sykes , 1786. His end product was big, ,but he neer exhibited at the Royal Academy. Romney was of an inventive, introverted, and nervous disposition. He was attracted to literary circles and William Hayley and William Cowper were among his friends. He had aspirations to literary topics in the Grand Manner, and, painted for Boydell s Shakespeare Gallery. His sepia drawings, largely designs for literary and historical topics which he neer carried put, were extremely prized ; there is a big aggregation of them in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 5.4 ) Thomas Gainsborough ( 1727-1788 ) When Gainsborough made his often-quoted comment about Reynolds, Damn him, how assorted he is , he was peeking, we may say, at the peculiar accomplishment by which his great rival ran the whole gamut of portrait-painting, from mere caputs to the most luxuriant poetic and allegorical phantasies. Gainsborough himself had no such assortment, but painted his Sitters, normally, in their wont as they lived. Yet, in a larger sense, he was far more va-rious than Reynolds. He excelled in two distinguishable subdivisions of the art, portrayal and landscape, and revealed an un-equalled success in uniting the two that is, in seting the human figure to a background of natural scenery. Furthermore, he excelled in conversation pieces, carnal picture, seascapes, genre and even still life. Such was his curious assortment. Gainsborough s personality was besides more graphic and assorted than that of Sir Joshua. He was excitable, easy moved to wrath and as readily appeased, generous and friendly wi th all who loved music and animate beings and the unfastened air. He had non Reynolds s gift of enduring saps lief. Although he painted at tribunal, he was non a courtly individual, but preferred to tie in with instrumentalists, simple common people, and, on juncture, with cottage dwellers. His most piquant images are those of individuals with whom he was intimate or at easiness. His expansive Sitters seem a small glacial, for all the flawlessness of the painter s technique, as though a window glass of glass were between them and the creative person. The methods of the two painters are sufficiently indicated by their several intervention of Mrs Siddons. Reynolds, when the portrayal was finished, signed his name along the border of her robe, in order to direct his name down to descendants on the hem of her garment . Gainsborough made no effort, as he had no wish, to enter the art of Queen Sarah ; but he was interested in the adult female as she rustled into his studio in her blue and white silk frock. Her chapeau, muff and pelt delighted him, and he proceeded to paint her as though she were paying him a call. As an actress, she was one of those Sitters with whom he could be informal ; and while pulling her contact profile, he is said to hold remarked, Curse it, madam, there is no terminal to your olfactory organ. The adult male who made such a comment was, clearly, no courtier, but a brusque and friendly being, concerned to free his Sitter of all sense of restraint. For a painter s studio is to the Sitter a nerve-wracking to pographic point. Gainsborough had from the first shown peculiar accomplishment in stand foring his Sitters as outdoorss, and therefore uniting portrayal with landscape. In his young person he had painted a portrayal of Mr and Mrs Andrews sitting in a wheat-fieM a lovely image, fresh as the dew of forenoon, in which Gainsborough s two major involvements seem about every bit balanced ; and at the stopping point of his calling his love of scenery sometimes prevailed over his involvement in human existences, and resulted non so much in a portrayal as in a image of a garden or a park, animated by gallant work forces and gracious adult females. The inclination to prefer the scenery to the individuals inspiring it reaches a flood tide in the celebrated canvas Ladies Walking in the Mall . It is a position of the cardinal avenue of the Mall, near Gainsborough s abode, behind Carlton House. The individuality of the stylish ladies taking an afternoon amble in the park is merrily ignored. The rustling of the leaf is echoed, as it were, in the play of the ladies gowns, so that Horace Walpole wrote of the image that it was all-a-flutter, like a lady s fan . It has the delicate grace of Lancret or Pater, and betrays the painter s clever flight from his studio to the greenest retreat. Joshua Reynolds on the Art of Thomas Gainsborough Whether he most excelled in portrayals, landscapes or fancy-pictures, it is hard to find [ ] This excel-lence was his ain, the consequence of his peculiar observation and gustatory sensation ; for this he was surely non indebted [ ] to any School ; for his grace was non academical, or old-timer, but selected by himself from the great school of nature [ ] [ ] The distinctive feature of his mode or manner, or we may name it his linguistic communication in which he expressed his thoughts, has been considered by many, as his greatest defect. But whether this distinctive feature was a defect or non, intermixed, as it was, with great beauties, of some of which it was likely the cause, it becomes a proper topic of unfavorable judgment and question to a painter. [ ] [ ] It is certain, that all those uneven abrasions and Markss which, on a close scrutiny, are so discernible in Gainsborough s images ; this pandemonium, this coarse and shape-less visual aspect, by a sort of thaumaturgy, at a certain distance assumes form, and all the parts seem to drop into their proper topographic points ; so that we can barely decline admiting the full consequence of diligence, under the visual aspect of opportunity and headlong carelessness. [ ] [ ] It must be allowed, that the hatching mode of Gainsborough did really much contribute to the elation of consequence which is so high a beauty in his images. [ ] 6 )Eighteenth Century Lanscape By the clip of Hogarth s decease in 1764, a new genera-tion had already established itself in London, with a new sort of art and a new attitude to art. By 1750, a figure of native-born creative persons were doing really just.livings in subdivisions other than the safe one of portrait-painting. There were distinguished painters in landscape, sea-painting, and carnal picture, rather apart from Hogarth s invention of satirical amusing picture. For Englishmans it may be true that landscape and animate being picture, and to an extent sea-painting, have ever been best loved when they retain something of portrayal are portrayals, in fact, recognizable similitudes of their ain Parkss, houses, or towns, of their metropoliss, of their ships or sea-battles. The best landscapes painted in England at the closje of the seventeenth and the beginning of the 18th centu-ries were topographical in nature. In marine painting the prima figure was Samuel Scott ( 1702-1772 ) , a coeval of Hogarth, who began by painting in the mode of Van de Veldes, but who subsequently switched to townscape about surely in reply to a demand that had been created by Canaletto. His ( Canaletto s ) pictures were widely known here, brought back by immature Englishmen^as perfect keepsakes, before he himself came in 1746. Scott, following stopping point in Canaletto s footfalls in his positions of London, caught possibly more of the head covering of wet that is about ever in English skies. But Scott lacked the Venetian s capaciousness and the logic of picture-making. Richard Wilson ( 1714-1782 ) developed a stronger, more terrible manner, in which the authoritative inspiration of the two Gallic Masterss of the Italian landscape, Claude and GaspardPoussin, is really clear ; as besides, instead subsequently, is thatof the wide shimmering aureate visions of the Dutchman, Cuyp. Wilson s English work of the 1960ss and 1970ss, more assorted than is frequently thought, is at its best of a composure, sunbasking, poetic differentiation ; to the English landscape he transferred something of the miraculously limpid Roman visible radiation, in which objects in the countryside can look to group themselves consciously into image. On other occasions Wilson found in the Welsh and in the English scene a ra-diant yet dwelling tenderness, the quiet enigma of broad stretches of H2O, over which the oculus is drawn deep into the image to the far Haze on the skyline where sight seems to run. Sometimes he besides made a command to aline his composings with the authoritative illustration of Claude by peopling them with authoritative or fabulous figures. The most singular of Gainsborough s landscapes have, in fact, merely found a full grasp this century. These are really early landscapes, painted in Suffolk about 1750 ; purely they are non pure landscapes as they include portrayals, but the synthesis of the two genres is so perfect that the images become portrayals of more than a individual of a whole manner of life, of a state aristocracy blossoming modestly and of course among their forests and Fieldss, their Parkss and lakes. The straightness of word picture is so traightforward as to look about naif. The visible radiation on land and tree and H2O has a rainwashed glare, and a unusual tenseness of hush sometimes it is about a thunderlight. In his ulterior pure landscapes, the woodenness thaws under the coppice of a painter who loved the radiant shimmering eloquence of his medium as possibly no other English painter has of all time done. Wilson and Gainsborough form the two chief extremums in 18th century landscape picture. Gainsborough s Landscapes As a landscape painter Gainsborough was influenced in his early old ages by Dutch 17th century images seen in East Anglia ; and the landscape backgrounds in his Ipswich period portrayals are all in that tradition. But during his Bath period he saw pictures by Rubens and thenceforth that influence is evident in his landscape composings. The landscapes of Gainsborough s adulthood have spontaneousness derivation from the light rapid motion of his coppice ; but they are non rapid studies from nature, he neer painted outdoorss ; he painted his landscapes in his studio from his drawings, and from the scenes which, he constructed in a sort of theoretical account theater, where he took spots of cork and veggies and so on and moved them about, and moved the visible radiation about, till he had arranged a composi-tion. It is possible that some of his preliminary black and white chalk landscape drawings were done outdoorss ; but the bulk were done in the studio from memory when he returned fro m his walk or drive ; and some of the finest of the drawings, the Horses by a Shed , for illustration, resulted possibly from a combination of the two processs a unsmooth pencil note made on the topographic point and reconsidered in footings of composing with the assistance of his taper and the theoretical account theater after dinner. At his highest degree he went far beyond the current expression and achieved a grade of incorporate 3-dimensional agreement. Wilson s River Scene with Bathers Probably the most permanent feeling made on many people by Richard Wilson s River Scene with Bathers is of the aureate visible radiation that suffuses the picture. It is a kind of visible radiation we associate with a warm summer eventide. Actual sunshine does nt frequently hold such a laid-back tone, but this color agreements absolutely with the image many of us keep of what flushing light ideally should be. Almost everything about this picture has a similar elysian quality. None of us has seen a position precisely like this one, and yet it instantly strikes a sympathetic chord: the cowss idling in the late Sun while the Herders take a swim ; the quietly rounded hills with multitudes of unflurried leaf ; the quiet river weaving toward the distant mountain and the still more distant, clean skyline. There is even a destroyed temple, picturesquely placed as a soft reminder of the ephemeral character of adult male s accomplishment in the face of nature. Eve-rything about this picture contributes to this idyllic temper. It is a small excessively good to be true ; but we wish it might be true. Richard Wilson himself had neer seen this position any more than we have, because it does non be. It was for him, as it is for us, an ideal landscape, sensitively developed in his imaginativeness from his remembrances of things encountered, both in nature and in art. It was an attitude that was widely accepted in Wilson s twenty-four hours. The artistic clime that produced a picture such as River Scene with Bathers is kindred to that which accounts for Mrs Siddons as the Tragic Muse . Underliing the involvement in making an ideal landscape was the premise that art should draw a bead on to something more than mere sensuous satisfaction ; that it should promote the ideas of the witness and purge his head of junior-grade considerations. This was to be achieved both by what was included and ( every bit of import ) the manner in which it was represented. The scene, with its ruin, broad view, and warm summer visible radiation, is meant to remind us of Italy, or at least the Mediterranean country, and to elicit by association a train of idea concerned with pastoral idylls of the classical yesteryear. But this consequence is strongly supported by the manner in which Wilson has organized the elements in his picture to prolong a temper of quiet and repose. The image is carefully balanced around the centrally placed ruin. The hill to the right finds merely the proper counter-poise in the distant mountain and the wide stretch of vale to the left. The group of swimmers on th e left is balanced by the cowss on the right. The whole position is enframed by trees on either side and set comfortably back in infinite by a dark foreground shelf. The sense of balance involves many factors, including form, visible radiation, texture and distance. Nothing appears forced, but every component in the image has been conceived and placed with respect to its relation to the whole. 7 ) Science AND ANIMAL PAINTING Joseph Wright of Derby ( 1734-1797 ) and George Stubbs ( 1724-1806 ) A most interesting figure was Joseph Wright of Derby, an able adequate painter with a singular scope of involvements. He was conventionally London-trained in portrayal, and made the, by so, conventionally necessary trip to Italy but it is to his native Midlands that he returned in the terminal. In his work at that place comes through something of the hard-headed, practical yet romantic exhilaration of the dawnof the Industrial Revolution. He saw the universe in a forced and sharpening light- sometimes unreal, the mill-windows brilliant in the dark, faces caught in the circle of the lamp, or the ruddy freshness of an Fe forge, projecting mon-strous shadows. This was an old fast one derivation from Caravaggio and the Dutch candle flame painters but with it Wright brought out a sense of geographic expedition and development scientific, rational and commercial, the spirit of the Midlands of his clip. His frequenters were work forces like the industrialist Arkwright of the spinning Jen ny, and Dr Priestley, the poetic visionary of the new scientific discipline ( both of whom he painted ) . The Experiment on a Bird in the Air-Pump , painted in 1768, is possibly his chef-doeuvre. Air-pumps were in considerable production in the Midlands at the clip, but this is non simply an magnificently painted and composed survey of scientific experiment. It is raised to the pitch of a true and traveling play of life by the stamp yet un-sentimental geographic expedition of a human state of affairs. The bird in the Earth will decease, as the vacuity is created in it ; the senior miss on the right can non bear the thought and hides her face in her custodies, while the younger one though half-turned off besides, looks up still to the bird with a fantastic and wondering look in which wonder is merely get the better ofing fright and commiseration. The Moon, on the border of cloud, seen through the window on the right, adds another dimension of weird-ness and enigma. This is a image that exists on many degrees but, as it was non expressed in footings of the classical civilization of the age, Wright s capable images were for long non given their due. He himself stood apart from that ( classical ) civilization ; although he early became an associate of the Royal Academy, he shortly quarrelled with it. George Stubbs nowadayss in some ways a similar instance: he neer became a full member of the Royal Academy. He was, for his coevalss, a mere horse-painter. In the last few old ages he has been much studied, and his reassess-ment has lifted him to the degree of the greatest of histime. His life has been reasonably described as heroic. The boy of a Liverpool Currier, he supported himself at the begin-ning of his calling in northern England by painting por-traits, but at the same clip started on his survey of anatomy, animate being and homo, that was to turn out non merely vitally im-portant to his art but besides a new part to scientific discipline. Stubbs was one of the great English empiricists. He took a farm-house in Lincolnshire and in it, over 18 months, he grappled with the anatomy of the Equus caballus. His theoretical accounts were the disintegrating carcases of Equus caballuss, which he bit by bit stripped down, entering each disclosure of anatoT my in precise and scientific drawing. The consequence was his book The Anatomy of the Horse,a pioneering work both in scientific discipline and art. All his picture is based on cognition drawn from ruthless survey, ordered by a most precise observation. In the 1970ss, his scientific involvements widened from anatomy to chemistry, and helped by Wedgwood, the enlightened laminitis of the great clayware house, he experimented in enam ) el painting. His true and great originality was non on-conventional lines, and could non be grasped by modern-day gustatory sensation.

The Civilization of West Europe Making Steps towards the Progress

Because of various factors influencing the development of nations and the shaping of the specific national peculiarities, the pace of West Europe development is considerably different from the one of the other parts of the world, which predetermines the specific features of the West European countries and their unusual features that distinguish them from the rest of the world.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Civilization of West Europe: Making Steps towards the Progress specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Analyzing the specific changes that occurred to the West Europe in the course of its development, one will be able not only to come to certain conclusions concerning the peculiarities of the West European culture, but also understand what issues and circumstances predetermined the given change. Thus, the reasons for the cultural difference between various countries will be found. In addition, the prerequisites of several major changes in the world politics, economics, financial and cultural life can be found if analyzing the changes in the West Europe carefully, which calls for an all-embracing consideration of the West Europe in XIX and the specifics of its development. It seems that there could not have been anything more romantic than the XIX-century England Victorian epoch. Introducing a whole world of refinement and elegance, the Victorian morals, though claimed by a number of people pretentious and fake (Pionke xvi), still seem to be an attempt on introducing certain flair of romantics into the prosaic world of the ordinary. However, it is necessary to admit that the Victorian Romanism also enhanced the evolution of privacy ideas and the concept of private exchange of letters, which, in its turn, must have served as a powerful incentive for the further personal rights campaign and the development of post service secrecy. According to Pionke, the Victorian epoch neglected the privacy rules until a certain event that served as a turning point of the Victorian mail history: Welsh observes that Victorian novels with blackmail plots often endorse not a revelation, but a reconcealing, of the truth as the proper and of ethical behavior whereas Vincent uses the Post Office scandal of 1844 – when it was discovered that the Post Office regularly opened suspicious mail, including potentially that of radical MPs – as an introduction to ways in which certain forms of information were concealed from public in the name of national security. (xvii)Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Therefore, the necessity to reconsider the conspiracy of private correspondence in the Victorian culture was obvious. Predetermined by the ideas of human rights and freedoms, the given situation was an obvious violation of people’s rights. However, it is quite debatable whether it wa s the notorious Post Office scandal of 1844 that changed the situation completely, or the advent of Romantic individualism, which â€Å"with its overwhelming valuation of the secret self and the poetic soul, as well as the pressures of political and economic instability† (Pionke xvii) speeded up the development of the mail privacy significance. One of the most tragic events in the history of the humankind, the epoch of battling with cholera, as well as the thousands of lives that cholera had taken, will always remain the darkest page of the world history – and at the same time the period when people displayed incredible courage and the willingness to survive and save the rest of the humanity. Induced by the lack – or, one had better said, complete absence – of sanitation, the disease was spreading at the increasing pace, despite the medics’ attempts to stop it. However, it is worth noting that the reaction of medics and the government towards the s urge of the disease differed considerably, which was predetermined by specific financial and economical factors. Because of taking different approaches to vanquish the same problem of poverty and the anti-sanitation issue, as well as the amazing discovery made by Robert Koch, the epidemic was successfully defeated. As Oppemheimer and Susser explained, â€Å"the cholera poison, subsequently germinated in the soil, would be transmitted locally through the atmosphere, but, contrary to Koch’s assertion, never by water or person-to-person† (1239).Not being able to control the cholera dispersion, the government should have implemented certain sanitary reforms, as Oppemheimer and Susser (1239) argued. Therefore, the course of actions of the government in the time when cholera was raging concerned issuing the acts concerning the norms of sanity, while medics focused on the medicine that could serve as the protection from the cholera virus.Advertising We will write a custo m essay sample on The Civilization of West Europe: Making Steps towards the Progress specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Because of the deplorable state of sanitation in the countries in the XIX century, the reason for the epidemic was quite complicated to spot. Hence, the ideas that Koch offered were quite novel and not really credible. However, Oppemheimer and Susser claim that as soon as the treatment offered by Koch proved efficient, the situation changed radically: â€Å"In Hamburg, he ordered interventions that von Pettenkofer regularly repudiated – isolation, quarantine, disinfection, and the boiling of water before its consumption† (1240). If it had not been for the dramatic discovery of Robert Koch, the history of the humankind must have turned out much shorter and less glorious. However, it is worth mentioning that the government also conducted the course of actions that were targeted at vanquishing the plague. De spite certain discrepancies in the policy of the government and Koch’s course of actions, cholera was finally defeated, though with huge losses. Considering the main problems of the XIX-century world, one must admit that slavery was the main scourge of the society in the distant 1810-1890ies. However, with the help of certain factors concerning the religious and economical issues, the idea of slavery as a part and parcel of the social structure and the economical model of the society started to wear off, which resulted in another stupendous change in the course of the humankind development. However, it should be acknowledged that, out of all reasons for the abolition of slavery, the economical ones were the most essential. With the advent of the new technologies and the development of machinery-based manufacturing, the need in slavery wore out, which drove to the reason for abolition. As Milwood admits, There is a falseness of the claim that Britain abolished slavery. From th e concrete evidence, British and European abolition of slavery was a paper gesture only. Abolition was not on moral grounds, ethical or theological grounds. (99)Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Meanwhile, the role of the religion in the process of the slave abolition, in contrast to what one might have expected, was to sustain the slavery regime, supporting it by the fact that religion must offer the slaves the consolation, not the way out of their dominated position. According to Milwood, religion was used in order to persuade people in the necessity of slavery as the stronghold of the society: Reverend John Smith, when he was dispatched on his mission to Demerara in 1816, was told ‘Not a word must escape you in public or private which might dislocate or render the slaves to be displeased with their situation. You are not sent to relieve then from their servitude condition, but to offer them the consolation of religion.’ (Milwood 100) Thus, slavery was obviously being ousted by the capitalistic ideas. However, operating the religious ideas, the authorities were trying to create obstacles in the way of the abolitionist movement. Nevertheless, the social and te chnological changes were too great for the slavery regime to continue. Another peculiar phenomenon in the history of Europe, the phenomenon of charivari should also be considered thoroughly. Being one of the ways in which justice was restored in the XIX century, charivari in French, or samosud in Russian, was considered the way in which justice could be restored when the authorities could not pass the adequate judgement. As Vogler explained, Within the category of the unmediated popular justice, the strongest legacies of traditional practices lie in the unsanctioned vigilantism which erupts in even highly developed or urban communities. In the English tradition, these have been represented by ‘skimmingtons,’ ‘chivarees’ and ‘rough music’ which essentially involved community victimization and punishment of deviants [†¦]. Such anarchic practices were merely part of popular rural justice which, for example, in France took the form of the char ivari and in Russia the samosud [†¦]. Therefore, people considered it their moral authority to accept the role of vigilantes and restore the justice that has been scorned and the violated rights of the population. As Vogler explains, in most cases, the issue in question concerned the problem of property crime (225) and demonstrated the lack of efficiency that the legal justice system had on the criminals and the criminal situation in the countries (46). Thus, Vogler emphasized the fact that the justice system of the XIX century left much to be desired, which enhanced the surge of the samosud incidents. Declaring complete helplessness of the existing system of justice, samosud and charivari peaked in such climaxes as lynch mobs and Ku-Klux-Klan (Vogler 2005), which meant that charivari was not the means to fight crimes but were themselves another variation of the latter. Together with the major changes concerning the sphere of economics, politics and the social life, emancipatio n of the society took place in the XIX century. However, despite the attempts of the adepts of feminist movement to inhale certain social ideas in the emancipation of the world, these were obviously the economical reasons that spurred women’s participation in economics and obtaining jobs in department stores. It is quite peculiar, thought, that in the United States by the XIX century, women employment was no longer a problem, in contrast to the situation in Europe. As Barth marks, â€Å"throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, the absence of women in the center of London, Paris, Berlin or Vienna struck American travelers in Europe† (Barth 121). However, it is worth mentioning that, because of the emancipation ideas that came to the forth in the XIX century, the necessity to offer women certain job opportunities was obvious. Unless West Europe offered women workplace in a certain field, Europe would not have been recognized as a developed country by the Uni ted States, where the ideas of emancipation had already took the hold of the social life standards and promoted equality between men and women, touching upon the issue of employment as well. As Barth explained, â€Å"the department store made the new phenomenon of a feminine public possible† (121). Therefore, predetermined by the necessity to keep in pace with the progress, the West European countries were to offer job propositions to women. Though the job prospects were at first limited by department stores which â€Å"thrived on the concentrated urban markets and on the industrial sector of the American economy† (Barth 121) and clerk desks, later on women managed to get the access to more responsible positions. However, judging from the current state of affairs, department stores are still mostly the realm of women, mostly due to the specifics of the work (Barth 122). The last, but not the least issue concerning the development of the West European countries and the obstacles that stood in their way to the progress, the World War I must be mentioned. Although the war can be considered an inevitable step on the way of the humankind development and reaching for another stage of progress, it cannot be denied that war took away millions of lives all over Europe and is one of the most tragic events ever occurring not only in the history of Europe, but also in the history of the world. Because of constant threat of being killed and even more dreadful prospect that the Triple Alliance could capture the entire world, the soldiers’ perception of reality changed completely once they faced their first battle. In addition to the lack of physical comfort, people were suffering the change of world perception, which, in its turn, contributed to the creation of such idea as â€Å"there are no atheists in the foxholes.† However, according to Upshur et al., the given observation is not quite true, since â€Å"hardly one soldier in a hundred was in spired by religious feeling of even the crudest kind. It would have been difficult to remain religious in the trenches even if one had survived the irreligion of the training battalion at home† (756). Indeed, in the place where people have to kill the foes without thinking, religion would have been rather a nuisance. Therefore, the idea that â€Å"there are no atheists in the foxholes† is wrong. Hence, it cam be concluded that the development of West Europe was far from being integral and well-paced; moreover, it is worth mentioning that the West European progress was often introduced by the harsh changes and a variety of consequences. Hence, it is important to mark that in West Europe, several essential steps towards progress were made in the XIX century, which enhanced the development of the rest of the world, like the ideas on slavery abolition, which further on spread to the United States and enhanced a revolution in the country. Therefore, the significance of the c hanges in West Europe cannot be denied; moreover, it is obvious that the changes in the West European society triggered a number of events that contributed to the world progress. Thus, West Europe of the XIX century played a crucial role in establishing the new moral values and introducing a new way of life that was further on considered the stronghold of the civilization, which allows to suggest that the development of West Europe has enhanced the progress of the rest of the world and contributed to the history of the humankind considerably. Works Cited Barth, Gunther. City People: The Rise of Modern City Culture in Nineteenth-Century  America. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1982. Print. Milwood, Robinson A. European Christianity and the Atlantic Slave Trade: A Black  Hermeneutical Study. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2007. Print. Oppenheimer, Gerald M. and Elza Susser. â€Å"Invited Commentary: The Context and Challenge of von Pettenkofer’s Contribution to Epidem iology.† American Journal of epidemiology, 166.11, 2007: 1239-1241. Pionke, Albert D. Plots of Opportunity: Representing Conspiracy in Victorian England.  Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press, 2004. Print. Vogler, Richard. A World View of Criminal Justice. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005. Print. Upshur, Jiu-Hwa, et al. World History: Advantage Edition. Stamford, CN: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print. This essay on The Civilization of West Europe: Making Steps towards the Progress was written and submitted by user Sonia Sutton to help you with your own studies. 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